Discourse Analysis of Policies to Prevent Violent Radicalization in Ten European Countries and their Impact on Educational Systems
Keywords:
Abstract
After the 9/11 attacks, Western societies and institutions try to respond to terrorist attacks. The fight against radicalization has gained prominence on international agendas. The OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) proposes a new learning objective: global competence. This research analyses how the attitudes of global competence, are reflected in government plans for the prevention of radicalization in ten European countries: Spain, Sweden, Germany, Denmark, the Netherlands, Austria, Belgium, France, the United Kingdom and Finland. A lexicometric analysis was performed using clustering techniques. Iramuteq program is used. A quantitative analysis was also carried out on a qualitative data corpus to facilitate comparative analysis. While European socio-educational policies are, theoretically, a fundamental pillar in the pursuit of integration, in practice, the network of correspondence shows a policy focused on the threat of terrorism, where police intervention is prioritized, and the role of education is insignificant. We conclude that policies for the prevention of radicalization in Europe do not reflect the characteristics that define democratic, interculturally competent citizenship and are not aligned with global competence. We suggest promoting transversality and unity of policies which encourage integration and social cohesion and reassessing the value of schools as a proactive measure for inclusion.
Downloads
References
Allport, G.W. (1962). La naturaleza del prejuicio. Ediciones Universidad de Buenos Aires.
Google Scholar CrossrefAuld, E., & Morris, P. (2019). Science by streetlight and the OECD’s measure of global competence: A new yardstick for internationalisation? Policy Futures in Education, 17(6), 677-698 https://doi.org/10.1177/1478210318819246
Google Scholar CrossrefAzqueta, A., & Merino-Arribas, A. (2022). The role of education in Preventing Violent Radicalisation: a review for Europe. Revista de Educación, 397(3), 209-238. https://doi.org/10.4438/1988-592X-RE-2022-397-545
Google Scholar CrossrefBerndt, T.J. (1982). The features and effects of friendship in early adolescence. Child Development, 53(6), 1447-1460. https://doi.org:10.2307/1130071
Google Scholar CrossrefBurde D., Guven O., Kelcey J., Lahmann H., & Al-Abbadi K. (2015). What Works to Promote Children’s Educational Access, Quality of Learning, and Wellbeing in Crisis-Affected Contexts. Education Rigorous Literature Review. Department for International Development
Google Scholar CrossrefBusher, J., & Jerome, L. (2020). The Prevent duy in education: impact, enactment and implications. Palgrave-Mc Millan.
Google Scholar CrossrefCala, V., Soriano-Ayala, E., & López-Martínez M. (2018). Actitudes hacia personas refugiadas y ciudadanía europea inclusiva. Análisis para una propuesta educativa intercultural con el profesorado en formación. Revista Electrónica de Investigación y Evaluación Educativa, 24(2). http://doi.org/10.7203/relieve.24.2.13320
Google Scholar CrossrefCoolsaet, R. (2019). Radicalization: The origins and limits of a contested concept. In N. Fadil (Coord). Radicalisation in Belgium and the Netherlands: Critical Perspectives on Violence and Security (pp. 29-51). IB Tauris.
Google Scholar CrossrefCouncil of Europe (2016a). Competences for democratic culture: Living together as equals in culturally diverse democratic societies. Council of Europe. https://bit.ly/2FuwFHE
Google Scholar CrossrefCouncil of Europe (2016b). Reference framework of competences for democratic culture: guidance for implementation (I-III). Council of Europe. http://xurl.es/e75m5
Google Scholar CrossrefDahl, V. (2017). Reducing Adolescents’ Approval of Political Violence: The Social Influence of Universalistic and Immigrant-Friendly Peers. Zeitschrift fur Psychologie mit Zeitschrift fur angewandte Psychologie, 225(4), 302-312. https://doi.org/10.1027/2151-2604/a000298
Google Scholar CrossrefDanish Ministry of Immigration, Integration and Housing (2016). Preventing and countering extremism and radicalisation. National Action Plan.
Google Scholar CrossrefDavies, L. (2018). Review of educational iniciatives in counter-extremism internationally: what works? The Segerstedt Institute Report. https://goo.gl/eVjmE9.
Google Scholar CrossrefEuropean Commission (2016). Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, The Council, The European Economic and Social Committee and The Committee of the Regions, June 14, 2016. Supporting the prevention of radicalisation leading to violent extremism COM (2016) 379 final.
Google Scholar CrossrefEuropean Commission (2020). Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, The Council, The European Economic and Social Committee and The Committee of the Regions, Decembre 9, 2020. A Counter-Terrorism Agenda for the EU: Anticipate, Prevent, Protect, Respond. COM (2020) 795 final.
Google Scholar CrossrefEurydice (2016). Promoting citizenship and the common values of freedom, tolerance and non-discrimination through education: Overview of education policy developments in Europe following the Paris Declaration of 17 March 2015. Publications Office EU. https://doi.org/10.2797/396908
Google Scholar CrossrefFederal Goverment (2016). Federal Government strategy to prevent extremism and promote democracy. Bundesministerium für Familie, Senioren, Frauen und Jugend. https://bit.ly/2DlTQFS
Google Scholar CrossrefFederal Ministry of the Interior of Austria (2017). The Austrian Strategy for the Prevention and Countering of Violent Extremism and De-radicalisation. Federal Agency for State Protection and Counter Terrorism. https://bit.ly/2YAeeN7
Google Scholar CrossrefFrontex Agency (2016). General Report 2015. European Agency for the management of operational cooperation at the external borders of the member states of the European Union. https://cutt.ly/qy1dXYC
Google Scholar CrossrefGearon, L. (2015). Education, Security and Intelligence Studies. British Journal of Educational Studies 63(3), 263–379. https://doi.org/10.1080/00071005.2015.1079363
Google Scholar CrossrefGovernment Office of Sweden (2015). Prevent, preempt and protect. The Swedish counter-terrorism strategy. (Skr. 2014/15:146) Government Communication Office. https://bit.ly/2YwhLfo
Google Scholar CrossrefGouvernement Republique Française (2018). Prévenir Pour Protéger. Plan national de prévention de la radicalization.
Google Scholar CrossrefGrotlüschen, A. (2018). Global competence. Does the new OECD competence domain ignore the global South? Studies in the Education of Adults, 50(2), 185-202. https://doi.org/10.1080/02660830.2018.1523100
Google Scholar CrossrefHer Majestic´s Goverment of United Kingdom (2018). The United Kingdom’s Strategy for Countering Terrorism. https://bit.ly/2Js6G8J
Google Scholar CrossrefHopfenbeck, T. Lenkeit, J., El-Masri, Y., Cantrell, K., Ryan, J., & Baird, J.-A. (2018). Lessons learned from PISA: A systematic review of peer-reviewed articles on the programme for international student assessment. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 62(3), 333-353. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2016.1258726
Google Scholar CrossrefJerome, L., Elwick, A., & Kazim, R. (2019). The impact of the Prevent duty on schools: A review of the evidence. British Educational Research Journal, 45(4), 821-837. https://doi.org/10.1002/berj.3527
Google Scholar CrossrefJerome, L. Busher, J., Armstrong, M. A., Choudhury, T., Silva da, R., Elwick, A., Fontana, G., James, N., Lewis, J., Robson, J., Svennevig, H., & Thomas, P. (2020). Conclusion: Reflections on the first five years of the Prevent Duty in eary years, Primary, Secondary and Further Education. In J. Busher, & L. Jerome (2020). The Prevent duy in education: impact, enactment and implications (pp. 159-170). Palgrave-Mc Millan.
Google Scholar CrossrefKamada, T., & Kawai, S. (1989). An agorithm for drawing general undirected graphs. Information processing letters, 31, 7-15.
Google Scholar CrossrefKoo, J. (2018). Mass influxes and protection in Europe: A reflection on a temporary episode of an enduring problem. European Journal of Migration and Law, 20(2), 157-181 https://doi.org/10.1163/15718166-12340027
Google Scholar CrossrefLeydesdorff, L., & Persson, O. (2010). Mapping the geography of science: Distribution patterns and networks of relations among cities and institutes. Journal of the American Society for Information Science & Technology, 61(8), 1622–1634. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.21347.
Google Scholar CrossrefLumb, E. (2018). Terrorism in the Nursery: considering the implications of the British Values discourse and the Prevent duty requirements in early years education, Forum, 60(3), 355-364. http://doi.org/10.15730/forum.2018.60.3.355.
Google Scholar CrossrefMarttinen, E., Dietrich, J., & Salmela-Aro, K. (2018). Intentional engagement in the transition to adulthood: An integrative perspective on identity, career and goal developmental regulation. European Psychologist, 23, 311-323. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000337
Google Scholar CrossrefMattsson, C., & Säljö, R. (2018). Violent extremism, national security and prevention. Institutional discourses and their implications for schooling. British Journal of Educational Studies, 66(1), 109-125. https://doi.org/10.1080/00071005.2017.1337870
Google Scholar CrossrefMatthews, J. (2016). Media performance in the aftermath of terror: Reporting templates, political ritual and the UK press coverage of the London Bombings, 2005. Journalism, 17(2), 173-189. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884914554175
Google Scholar CrossrefMiddleton, J. (2016). Preventing violent extremism: the role of doctors. The Lancet, 388(10057), 2219-2221. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31902-X
Google Scholar CrossrefMinistry of the Interior Finland (2020) National Action Plan for the prevention of violent radicalization and extremism 2019-2023. Government Administration-Department Publications. https://cutt.ly/cHAbnbb
Google Scholar CrossrefMotti-Stefanidi, F., & Salmela-Aro, K. (2018). Challenges and resources for immigrant youth positive adaptation. What does scientific evidence show us? European Psychologist, 23(1), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000315
Google Scholar CrossrefNational Coordinator for Security and Counterterrorism (2016). National Counterterrorism Strategy for 2016-2020.
Google Scholar CrossrefNemr, C., & Savage, S. (2019). Integrative complexity interventions to prevent and counter violent extremism. Global Center on Cooperative Security. https://cutt.ly/9r5v694
Google Scholar CrossrefObaidi, M., Kunst, R., Kteily, N., Thomsen, L., & Sidanius, J. (2018). Living under threat: Mutual threat perception drives anti‐muslim and anti‐Western hostility in the age of terrorism. European Journal of Social Psychology, 48(5), 567-584. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2362.
Google Scholar CrossrefOECD (2018a). Preparing our youth an inclusive and sustainable world. The OECD PISA global competence framework. OECD. https://cutt.ly/rr6fMVl
Google Scholar CrossrefOECD (2018b). The Future of Education and Skills OECD Education 2030 Framework. OECD. https://bit.ly/2IhJXYs
Google Scholar CrossrefOpen Society Justice Iniciative (2016). Eroding Trust: The UK´s PREVENT Counter-Extremist Strategy in Health and Education. Open Society Foundations. https://bit.ly/2nCufmz
Google Scholar CrossrefRagazzi, F. (2017). Students as suspects?: The challenges of counter-radicalization policies in education in the Council of Europe member states. Council of Europe. https://cutt.ly/Hr5bhhL
Google Scholar CrossrefReinert, M. (1986). Un logiciel d’analyse lexicale: Alceste. Cahiers de l’Analyse des Données, 11(4), 471-484.
Google Scholar CrossrefReinert, M. (1990). Alceste: une méthodologie d’analyse des donne textuelles et une application: Aurélia de G. de Nerval. Bulletin de Méthodologie Sociologique, 26(1), 24-54.
Google Scholar CrossrefRevell, L., & Bryan, H. (2016). Calibrating fundamental British values: How head teachers are approaching appraisal in the light of the Teachers’ Standards 2012, Prevent and the Counter-Terrorism & Security Act. Journal of Education for Teaching, 42(3), 341–353. https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2016.1184464
Google Scholar CrossrefRobertson, S. L. (2021). Provincializing the OECD-PISA global competences project. Globalisation Societies and Education, 19(2), 167-182. https://doi.org/10.1080/14767724.2021.1887725
Google Scholar CrossrefSälzer, C., & Roczen, N. (2018). Assessing global competence in PISA 2018: Challenges and approaches to capturing a complex construct. International Journal of Development Education and Global Learning, 10(1), 5-20. https://doi.org/10.18546/IJDEGL.10.1.02
Google Scholar CrossrefSchwartz, M. (2018). Shifting the preveting violent extremist paradigm: A think piece on human insecurity, political violence, and new directions for preventing violent extremism. Global Center on Cooperative Security.
Google Scholar CrossrefSimpson, A., & Dervin, F. (2019). Forms of dialogism in the Council of Europe Reference Framework on competences for democratic culture. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 40, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2019.1618317
Google Scholar CrossrefSjøen, M., & Jore, S. (2019). Preventing extremism through education: exploring impacts and implications of counter-radicalisation efforts. Journal of Beliefs & Values, 40(3), 269-283 https://doi.org/10.1080/13617672.2019.1600134
Google Scholar CrossrefSpanish Goverment (2015). Plan Estratégico Nacional de Lucha contra la Radicalización Violenta. Un marco para el respeto y el entendimiento común. Ministerio del Interior. https://bit.ly/2gyz3jA
Google Scholar CrossrefStonebanks, C. (2019). Secularism and securitization: The imaginary threat of religious minorities in Canadian public spaces. Journal of Beliefs & Values 40(3), 303-320 https://doi.org/10.1080/13617672.2019.1600341
Google Scholar CrossrefStrabac, Z., Aalberg, T., & Valenta, M. (2014). Attitudes towards Muslim immigrants: Evidence from survey experiments across four countries. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies. 40(1), 100-118. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2013.831542
Google Scholar CrossrefVan Zalk, M. H. W., Kerr, M., Van Zalk, N., & Stattin, H. (2013). Xenophobia and tolerance toward immigrants in adolescence: Cross-influence processes within friendships. Journal of abnormal child psychology, 41(4), 627-639. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-012-9694-8
Google Scholar CrossrefVeiligheid van de staat. Vei Sûrete de l’Etat (2018). Le Salafisme en Belgique. Mécanismes et réalité. https://bit.ly/30Gvdw5
Google Scholar CrossrefVerkuyten, M., & Thijs, J. (2001). Racist victimization among children in the Netherlands: the effect of ethnic group and school. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 25, 310-331. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870120109502
Google Scholar CrossrefVerkuyten, M. (2018). Religious fundamentalism and radicalization among Muslim minority youth in Europe. European Psychologist, 23(1), 21-31. http://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000314
Google Scholar CrossrefVicente, A. (2018). Fórmulas utilizadas para la radicalización y el reclutamiento yihadista de menores en España. Análisis Real Instituto Elcano, 76/2018.
Google Scholar CrossrefWalker, R. F. (2019a). Teachers as informants: countering extremism and promoting violence. Journal of Beliefs & Values, 40(3), 368-380. https://doi.org/10.1080/13617672.2019.1600321
Google Scholar CrossrefWalker, R. F. (2019b). The UK's PREVENT Counter-Terrorism Strategy appears to promote rather than prevent violence. Journal of Critical Realism, 18(5), 487-512. https://doi.org/10.1080/14767430.2019.1646095
Google Scholar CrossrefWard, S. (2018). Boal, theatre in education and the promotion of Fundamental British Values. Journal for Critical Education Policy Studies, 16(3), 38-67.
Google Scholar CrossrefPublished
Metrics
Almetric
Dimensions
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2023 Arantxa Azqueta Díaz de Alda, Adoración Merino-Arribas
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
All articles are published under Creative Commons copyright (CC BY). Authors hold the copyright and retain publishing rights without restrictions, but authors allow anyone to download, reuse, reprint, modify, distribute, and/or copy articles as the original source is cited.
