Research on Ageing and Social Policy
Volume 13, Issue 1, 30th January 2025, Pages 23 25
The Author(s) 2025
http://dx.doi.org/10.17583/rasp.15256
Social Participation: A Good Life After Retirement in Russia
Liliya Martynova & Jiby Mathew Puthenparambil
Abstract
Social activities that older adults engage in are vital to social policy on ageing in Russia. This study looks from the eudaimonic perspective at the participation of older adults in three Russian social projects featuring activities in volunteering, fashion modelling and traditional handicrafts. Qualitative and quantitative methods were applied to analyse 934 completed online surveys. Despite differences in the types of activities, the results showed that satisfaction with fulfilling older adults' motivations to participate and the benefits they gained from participation led to improvements in their perceptions of life after retirement. According to the participants, additional indicators such as the sense of being needed, the feeling of happiness, and self-assessment of health also improved. However, organising social activities requires flexibility to meet older peoples heterogeneous needs and interests according to changes in their personal situation or the external environment. To achieve a sense of well-being in older age, these activities must satisfy internal motivations to participate and should cover essential needs of relatedness, competence, and autonomy.
Keywords
Eudaimonic perspective, social activities, life after retirement, active ageing, well-being
With a steadily ageing population and changes in social norms, social policymakers need to take immediate measures that will improve the well-being of older people and give them the means to remain active and socially engaged. The active ageing policy being implemented in Europe encourages older people to continue contributing through paid work or social participation (Foster & Walker, 2015; World Health Organization, 2002). The social activities in this study refer to a wide range of organised projects targeting older adults that allow them to, for instance, be involved in handicrafts, interact with younger generations, volunteer, do sports, and pursue educational and cultural activities in a group.
In Russia, social policy on ageing that adopts similar ideas to active ageing and encourages older individuals to engage socially and culturally with others is called active longevity (Government of Russia, 2016; Ovcharova et al., 2020). Projects backed by governmental and non-governmental organisations, religious institutions, and local organisers enhance the quality of life for older people by offering them opportunities to engage in social activities. Both active ageing and active longevity are concepts which acknowledge the importance of cultivating better perceptions of ageing, and social activities are seen as important for that (Government of Russia, 2016; World Health Organization, 2002). However, considering the steadily ageing population and the number of social projects now targeted at older adults, this has yet to receive sufficient attention among academics. There is presently little existing research on social activities and their effects on the perceptions of life after retirement.
The present study aims to reveal which factors enhance perceptions of life after retirement while participating in organised social activities. To do this, it employs a eudaimonic perspective to analyse the online survey responses completed by participants in three projects that focused on different social activities, such as volunteering, modelling and handicrafts. Thus, it examines the motivating factors for participation in these activities and their perceived benefits. The practical implications of these findings are then discussed, underscoring the relevance and potential impact of this research.
Previous studies have shown that participating in leisure activities can be a vital contributor to fostering positive affect during the latter stages of life. Thus, following the activity theory of ageing, informal activities increase life satisfaction (Lemon et al., 1972). Physical and leisure activities such as sports, volunteering, clubs of interest, or hobbies are linked to active and successful ageing and a good quality of life (Bowling, 2006, 2008). A part of this meaning is found in social activities that positively influence the activities of daily living and cognitive functions of older participants (Kelly et al., 2017; Kim, 2017). Participation in volunteering or handicraft activities allows participants to mitigate social exclusion and get involved in helping others, and stimulates further engagement in civic activities (Parfenova, 2020). Individual motivations and the interests of the participants in social projects may stimulate the development of activities beyond the projects, promote the participants own initiatives in organising leisure time and supporting others, or elevate existing activities to a city or regional level (Kienko et al., 2022; Parfenova, 2020). By participating in activities, older people not only feel more in control of the ageing process but also of the meaning of their personal life experience and improvements in subjective well- being (Liddle et al., 2013).
According to the eudaimonic perspective, participation in meaningful activities helps individuals reach their full potential and contributes to personal happiness (Robinson et al., 2012; Ryan et al., 2008). The concept of eudaimonia here is understood as living life well with the actualisation of human capacities; the focus is on the content of ones life, and the processes involved in living well (Ryan et al., 2008, p. 140). Eudaimonic living involves self-realisation, developing skills and setting life goals (Waterman, 1993). People dedicated to self-improvement and self-development are more likely to engage in social activities (Ryan et al., 2008). From a self-determination theory perspective on eudaimonia, when individuals feel intrinsically motivated to participate in social activities, they may fulfil their essential psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Ibid.). In this case, autonomy describes feeling in control of organising yourself in terms of both the external context and your internal state; competence relates to exploring and mastering new skills and adaptive mechanisms in different social groups; while relatedness refers to the need to feel a sense of belonging, connectedness, and communication. Relatedness is particularly important for social cohesion, knowledge transmission, and getting the most out of adapting to a group (Deci & Ryan, 2000). By satisfying these personal intrinsic goals and psychological needs, individuals enhance their well-being, leading to self-acceptance, personal growth, and positive networking experiences (Ryan et al., 2008).
Older people's engagement in various social activities involves communication, learning, personal development, social solidarity, and mutual assistance to address common problems and transform the environment through joint processes. Furthermore, being in a group may strengthen older peoples confidence and develop their talents since group integration and energy may stimulate creativity and achievements (Levine, 1952). Doing arts and handicrafts in a group, for instance, allows participants to mitigate any negative feelings they may have and enhances their self-confidence through being creative and making meaning (Barret, 1993; Cajayon et al., 2017; Hoffman, 1978). Research on the impact of volunteering provides evidence to suggest it has a positive impact on self-perception, mental and emotional well-being, family relationships, and self-reported health (Lum & Lightfoot, 2005; Taghian et al., 2019). Volunteering also strengthens cognitive activities, which can help prevent the onset of dementia (Anderson et al., 2014). Participating in social activities and working in a group in itself can make something meaningful and stimulate feelings of mutual support among the participants (Adams et al., 2011).
Participating in social activities is eudaimonic for older people insofar as they feel they are working towards what they see as intrinsically beneficial to their own as well as others long-term well-being. In this respect, taking part in the activities is a meaningful way of shaping a more favourable perception of ageing and can help them transition to retirement more easily (e.g., Cadmus et al., 2021; Jones & Reynolds, 2019). Focusing on broader eudaimonic outcomes is an alternative pathway to individual and societal well-being that serves a crucial function in reaching the social policy goal of living well (Ryan et al., 2008). A eudaimonic perspective based on the self-determination theory (Ryan et al., 2008) has thus been adopted in this study to analyse participation in the selected projects and interpret the factors revealed by the chosen qualitative and quantitative methods.
The dataset for this study was collected using a Webropol online survey. This allows researchers to collect valuable information relatively quickly without the logistical challenge of having to organise face-to-face meetings. This issue arose in the current study, which was constrained by political and social conditions affecting information collection in 2022. Therefore, online data collection became one of the most viable options. Projects were selected based on several criteria: they should focus on activities for older adults; activities within chosen projects should be of different types; and projects should be focused on personal growth and the potential development of individuals and their different interests (see Table 1).
The organisations and volunteer centres were called to check if it was possible for their participants to complete the survey. The survey was anonymised. Thus, personal information was not elicited, and the results could not identify participants. Information about anonymisation was explained to the organisers and also included in the introduction part of the online survey form. The link for the survey was distributed through the projects` organisers, and then they sent the link to the project participants. The link was open for 2.5 weeks in order for the participants to find the most suitable time to fill out the survey.
The survey consisted of 19 questions, including four open-ended questions and a section for comments. The questions were based on an earlier pilot study of participants in the Moscow Longevity project. Carrying out a pilot project prior to non-interactive data collecting helps researchers to design questions and allows them to better predict responses to some questions (Braun & Clarke, 2022). In the preparation of questions for the current study, the responses provided by the pilot studys participants were carefully considered, as well as their comments in the designated comment section (Martynova, 2023b). Therefore, questions on different benefits that the participants gained due to their participation and a comment section were included as open-ended questions to provide participants with opportunities to write about all activities they engaged in within the projects.
The project organisers in this study stipulated that there should be fewer questions about the participants backgrounds (e.g., education and previous occupations). Consequently, the background information on the participants is limited something which may happen when data is collected online (Yu et al., 2020). The four open-ended questions asked respondents to describe what made them participate in the project, their place of residence, the types of activity people engaged in there, and what they thought could be changed in the project. Meanwhile, the comment section was for the participants to share their thoughts about how participating in social activities affected their lives. The questionnaire also included 15 closed questions, asking, for example, about how the participants became aware of the project, the amount of time spent on activities, the reactions of friends and family, the benefits of participation, why the participants thought the project was needed, difficulties they encountered while participating and feelings of being needed with the option to expand on any of these if they so wished.
The question of how project participation affected participants` perceptions, expectations, and understanding of life after retirement (regardless of their current age) included three options changes for the better, changes for the worse, and no change this also provided us with the dependent variable for quantitative analysis. Each option had text fields where comments could be written to explain why the participants chose it. Initially, this question asked respondents about the effect of activities on their perception of ageing, but this word met with some objections from organisers, so the formulation was changed to life after retirement instead. This is probably a reflection of the fact that in Russia, the name of active longevity is now preferred for the concept over active ageing (Martynova, 2023a). For similar reasons, perhaps one of the projects organising activities for older people in this study actually uses the word young in its title. Although this is meant to indicate vitality and engagement, it also gives negative connotations to the words ageing and older (Gendron et al., 2016).
Because of the social context of data gathering, it was decided not to make all questions mandatory for replies. Some respondents skipped the questions they wanted to avoid answering, and these were then marked as missing valuable information. Data from across the three projects was collected in Russian from a total of 934 people and then translated into English for further analysis. Furthermore, over 2,000 participants in the Young at Heart project eventually completed the survey but did not submit it. The project organisers assumed that this was probably because many had forgotten to press the submit button as the last step. Nevertheless, it was decided to consider only submitted surveys out of ethical considerations.
A helpful way to study what motivates people to participate in social activities and the perceived benefits is to combine quantitative and qualitative methods (Gagliardi et al., 2020). In the present study, the qualitative data was provided by the open questions and comments, while the quantitative data came from the closed questions. A eudaemonic interpretation of the qualitative data suggested that individuals dedicated to self-development and self-improvement were more likely to engage in social activities. These open responses were also analysed to explore the reasons for participation and see how they affected the participants perceptions and expectations of life after retirement.
Out of the 934 participants that responded, 817 gave an answer about their motivations for participating (ranging from one word to several sentences); 453 answered about their perceptions of life after retirement; and 12 were excluded as their answers were unclear (e.g., about when they retired). The responses about motivations for participating and their perceptions of life after retirement were then coded inductively for analysis. Themeing the data is considered a valuable method to analyse the emotional experience of study participants and their beliefs (Saldaña, 2013). Performing a thematic analysis facilitates the emergence of distinct categories from the data. Such analysis requires the researchers understanding of the study goals and reflection on the data (Braun & Clarke, 2022; Saldaña, 2013), since themes are seen as being produced and interpreted by the researcher (Braun & Clarke, 2022). According to Braun and Clarke (2022), the creation of high-quality coding and themes is the result of two processes: immersion and distancing. Immersion facilitates a profound engagement with the material, while distancing allows for critical reflection. Identified themes were grouped based on their commonality (Saldaña, 2013). The results were then visualised in Figure 1 and Figure 2 using Gestalt principles of colour, weight and connection (Rouder et al., 2021). The open questions were found to have explanatory power for understanding the reasons behind responses. For the same reason, the comments sections in each response were also analysed since this was where the participants shared their thoughts on any changes related to participating in the project.
The quantitative approach was used to reveal which factors most affected the participants perceptions of their lives after retirement and the organised social activities they were engaged in. The independent variables were grouped thematically under the three psychological needs of a self-determination theory perspective on eudaimonia to fulfilment: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Autonomy is feeling able to have control over ones life and self-organisation; competence is having the ability to do things effectively and with a degree of mastery, develop adaptive mechanisms gained through social activities; and relatedness is experiencing connection with others, and the sense of belonging to a group. Six variables were grouped under the autonomy theme: Makes a change from the daily routine, Enjoying participating in activities, Feeling more confident, Having a positive feeling of being needed, Health is improving, and Feeling happier. Four variables were grouped under competence: New goals and tasks, Learning new skills, Positive change in worldview, and Obtaining new knowledge. Finally, four variables were grouped under relatedness: Having new topics for communication, Getting better at online messaging, Communicating more and making new acquaintances, and Contributing to culture preservation. Most of the independent variables were derived from multiple questions about the benefits of participating in the projects. For the binary logistic regression, these variables were coded as dichotomous, with a value of 1 assigned if the participant reported a benefit, and 0 if they reported no change or benefit. However, certain variables (such as feeling needed, feeling happy, and self-assessed health) were initially assessed as nominal variables in the questionnaire, so we redefined these as dichotomous variables: "better" (including 'yes, a lot' and 'more') and "has not changed." Since the last option (i.e. 'worsen') had only two responses, it was excluded from the analysis. In addition, the Grandmother and Young at Heart projects were combined due to a lack of respondents in the former (only nine) and the similarity of several activities in both projects (handicrafts and intergenerational activities).
The same question used for qualitative analysisconcerning how participation in the project affected the participants' perceptions and expectations of life after retirementwas also used as the dependent variable for the quantitative analysis. Initially, responses were also categorised nominally as one of three kinds positive change, no change, or negative change but since there were only two cases of negative change, it was excluded, and the variable became binary (positive or no change).
STATA (V.16; StataCorp, College Station, Texas, USA) was used to perform all the statistical analyses. Logistic regression was carried out to see if there was any association between feeling the benefits of participating in the projects and a positive perception of life after retirement. The model was controlled for age and gender, and since odds ratios would not produce a meaningful interpretation in this study, the adjusted average marginal effects (AME) were estimated instead. This was found to facilitate a straightforward interpretation of the impact of each independent variable on the probability of having a positive perception of ageing. Assumptions for the logistic regression (e.g., multicollinearity) were checked before the analysis.
Table 1 gives background information about each project, and a description of the goals and the activities offered.
Table 1
Description of the Projects
All three projects had activities which involved either obtaining new skills and knowledge or improving existing ones. The three organisations contacted developed a range of activities, some of which overlapped. For the Young at Heart project, these were computer skills, historical and cultural knowledge, and sports activities; for the Grandmother project participants, they were knitting and sewing skills, using online messengers, while for the Age Fashion Day project participants, these skills were related to modelling. Although each project initially catered for specific activities, the participants' information on activities revealed the flexible and dynamic nature of these projects. Projects were open to adding extra activities if the participants requested them or because of external factors. This was most clearly expressed in the silver volunteering project, which acts as an umbrella for a whole range of activities. Respondents found that becoming a volunteer opened up opportunities for them to do sports and physical activities, interact with children, work with people with disabilities and others in need, and get involved in cultural events or master classes on handicrafts, preservation and renovation work, local events and fairs, and environmental work.
Table 2 presents the age and gender of the survey respondents. For the purpose of anonymity, these were the only two background characteristics that organisers permitted to be obtained from the survey. There was a clear gender imbalance, with women vastly outnumbering men, and the cohort in their 60s was the largest age group.
Table 2
Background Characteristics of the Respondents
Analysing the motivations to participate in the projects revealed seven main themes, of which four were oriented towards benefiting society, and three were oriented towards the participants themselves (Figure 1). Since the primary reason for all three projects was social participation, the results from the three projects could be combined. However, differences between the projects were also discussed. The motivations of 117 respondents remain unknown, even though 95 of them gave answers about their expectations and perceptions of life after retirement, and 52 left only positive comments in the comments section about their participation. This might suggest that a reluctance to share reasons does not necessarily correlate with participation experiences.
Among the socially oriented motivations, the motivations to help others, do something good, and share experience were identified only among silver volunteers of the Young at Heart project. Only 12 participants in the Young at Heart and Age Fashion Day projects mentioned their wish to overcome negative stereotypes about ageing and older people, even though that was the stated primary goal of the latter. Regardless of the project, it seems that self-development and self-realisation were the most frequent motivations for participating in the social activities offered, representing the intrinsic need for competence from a eudaimonic perspective.
Figure 1
Motivations for Participating
Note. Respondents could mention more than one reason (hence there were more responses than respondents).
From Figure 1, it can be seen which variables translate into the eudaimonic intrinsic motivation of competence endeavours of being active and participating more, new knowledge, skills, having an interesting life, new experience, new life sense, self-affirmation, doing what one did before, fulfilling the dream, promoting one's own business, a desire to have quality leisure time, and positive emotions. The respondents, including 96 volunteers and one respondent of the Age Fashion Day project, mentioned the motivation for being needed, which may emphasise the priorities for these participants in recognition and, thus, in extrinsic aspirations. Communication was frequently mentioned among the reasons to participate, and it coincided with the eudaimonic perspective of the importance of relatedness motivations in the pursuit of living well. Data was collected at the end of the COVID-19 restrictions, which may have affected the importance of communication. Interestingly, the analysis of the distribution of motivations within different age cohorts showed similar patterns among the three age groups.
The analysis of reasons given for participating in social activities revealed that almost 16 per cent (n=148) of all those who responded declared that social participation had not altered their perception of living after retirement, and 100 of those 148 provided explanations (see No effects pie chart in Figure 2). The most frequent reason given among this group was that they had been active or optimistic throughout their lives, and this was simply a continuation of that. Some responses included detailed answers with life stories about being volunteers or helping others, having an active lifestyle, and being positively minded. Others described a smooth transition to retirement, having been well-prepared for it, and four respondents explained that they had only recently joined the projects, so it was too early to say yet. Two respondents from the No Effects group mentioned that their perception of ageing had worsened during their participation in the projects. They explained this by having problems with communication, social issues, and problems with their pension. These changes for the worse were euphemistically grouped together as No positive changes.
Most respondents (n=720) claimed their perception of life after retirement had improved through social participation, and 443 of them (61.5 per cent) went on to give a reason for this (see the Positive influence pie chart in Figure 2). The most frequent reason given among this group (208) was feeling they were developing and looking after themselves better. It included explanations such as I do what I like, [ ] having a more interesting life, [ ] more active life, positive emotions, new knowledge, skills, new goals. The second most popular reason (n=121) was that participating in social activities had given them a better view of themselves. Then, there were 104 respondents who felt that social activities were helping them communicate more. The analysis of the Positive influence category revealed an unexpected category of the influence of other people from one`s surroundings (43 mentions). This category included responses about the importance of being included in teamwork and surrounded by like-minded, positive, active and interesting people.
Figure 2
Reasons Given for Why Participating in Social Activities Does or Does not Affect Respondents Expectations and Perceptions of Life After Retirement
Note. Respondents could mention more than one reason (hence there were more responses than respondents).
In both the No effects (n=17) and Positive influence (n=7) groups, a few respondents (n=24 in total) felt obliged to point out that they were not retired yet, in spite of the question being worded so that it referred to expectations of retirement as well as perceptions of it. Of these, only three respondents answered that there were no changes, while 20 left comments about positive changes in their lives, such as feeling needed, even though most of them had claimed No effects.
The comments section was completed by 739 of the respondents, ranging from one word (e.g., positively and good) to several sentences with stories about the different activities within projects, communication with peers and like-minded people, and changes in self-perception. Those who chose the No changes option also provided these positive comments. This contradiction might be explained by not seeing the connection between various positive changes happening in respondents' lives and their perceptions and expectations of ageing. Some respondents described feeling younger or having a more youthful spirit, which only seems to reinforce the negative social connotations of ageing. The respondents were implying that feeling young was somehow better than gracefully accepting feeling their age.
Figure 3 shows the different reasons given for the positive influence of analysed projects and their percentage share of the total number of responses. The most commonly reported benefit was a Positive feeling of being needed (86.1%), followed by an Improved level of happiness (85%) and Better health (81.4%), while the least reported was Getting better at online messaging (22.0%) and Positive changes in worldview (25.1%). During the COVID-19 lockdown, most social activities and projects in Russia centred around helping older people improve their online communication skills. Since the data for this study was collected in the first half of 2022, previous interest in this topic may have worn off because physical contact was again possible. In general, most respondents experienced significant positive changes across multiple areas, with emotional and health-related benefits being the most prominent.
Figure 3
Multiple Response Frequency Analysis: Benefits of Participating in the Projects
Table 3 presents descriptive statistics and an analysis of the AME on the participants perceptions of life after retirement. The variables were identified and then grouped under the three eudaimonic themes of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Overall, across all variables in these themes, over 80 per cent of respondents reported that participating in the analysed projects positively influenced their perception of ageing. For some variables, it was well above the average, e.g., Positive changing of world view (92.7 per cent) and Daily routine changed (90.5 per cent), but there was some variation between the projects Young at Heart & Grandmother showed a significant positive influence (84.6 per cent), while for Age Fashion Day it was lower (63.2 per cent).
Table 3
Descriptive and Average Marginal Effect (AME) Analysis on Perception of Living After Retirement (N=870)
Note. The percentage of descriptive statistics is calculated row-wise, with missing values ranging from 6.9 to 8% in some variables. In logistic regression, the reference group for all variables except the project variable is No change. Age and Gender were controlled for AME. Total observation n=819; Hosmer-Lemeshow = 9.62 (p=>0.05); R2=0.32.
The AME analysis showed that the participants who reported Feeling in better health had a 16.5 per cent higher probability of having a positive perception of life after retirement, while those who experienced a Positive feeling of being needed had a 12.1 per cent higher probability to do so (P <.001). Other reported variables (all with P <.001) that indicated respondents were more likely to have a good view of their retirement were Improved levels of happiness (7.1 per cent), Positive changes in world view (6.6 per cent), and More communication / making new acquaintances (7.8 per cent). Curiously, the participants who reported contributing to culture preservation had an 11.6 per cent lower probability of having a positive perception of life (P <.001). Additionally, there were significant results in the projects in which the participants were engaged. Overall, the participants fulfilled some essential needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness by joining social activities, which positively influenced their perception of ageing.
The results also show that the participants in the Young at Heart and Grandmother projects had a 12.1 per cent higher probability of having a positive perception of living after retirement (P <.001) than those taking part in the Age Fashion Day project. This may be because they were longer-term projects than the Age Fashion Day project, which was designed for a specific purpose.
The factors that cause positive changes in living after retirement include satisfying the motivation to participate in social activities and fulfilling essential needs in autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Emotional and health variables such as a positive feeling of being needed and health assessment have a higher probability of creating a positive perception of ageing. Despite the differences in activity types, from satisfying motivations to obtaining benefits, positive changes in psychological well-being, meeting essential needs, and overall better perception of life after retirement are significant.
The eudemonic perspective on analysing social participation serves well for examining the active ageing and active longevity policy approach and the aim of developing a positive image of ageing. The participants engagement in the studied projects was voluntary and based on personal interests and willingness. The analysis of participation in social projects makes it possible to identify the reasons for participation, changes in perception of ageing and different priorities in benefits for older adults. From a eudaimonic perspective, participation in social projects may lead to a fulfilling life due to the satisfaction of intrinsic motivations, opportunities for self-realisation, and contributions to the common good, regardless of the specific goals of the projects. For example, the participants pursued socially oriented motivations, and one of the reasons for taking part in the projects was that they saw their participation in social activities as providing opportunities to do something good for others and communities. Moreover, self-oriented reasons to participate were mentioned often, including having quality time, possibilities for self-development and self-realisation (see Figure 1). The current study also showed that communication can become a reason to engage in social activities and that the participants saw this outcome as beneficial. Such engagement provides a rich forum for relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 2000) and corresponds to other study results that discuss the influence of social activities on participants social network expansion (Adams et al., 2011; Boerio et al., 2023). These expanding social networks cause a higher level of engagement in volunteering, caregiving, or political activities (Boerio et al., 2023). Research suggests that fulfilling eudaimonic motives of participation in social activities, including contributing to society, improves life satisfaction and meaning in life (Chu & Koo, 2023).
The current studys findings are consistent with the argument that participating in social activities shapes a more positive perception of ageing and the transition period after retirement (e.g., Cadmus et al., 2021; Jones & Reynolds, 2019; Ryan et al., 2008). Participation in social projects, for instance, volunteering, may be considered as another career path that enables older adults to shape their eudaimonic well-being (Shirahada & Wilson, 2022). The majority of the study respondents declared positive changes in living after retirement. In the present study, life after retirement was used instead of the term ageing. Social participation in the study is a way for older people to feel more in control of their lives, develop competence, and achieve changes in self-perception and self-development. There is a sense of self-empowerment (Kienko, 2021; Lord & Hutchison, 1993) and self-capability (Liddle et al., 2013). The social projects studied here allowed the participants to form a community with growing solidarity and opportunities to participate in events and activities. By developing their initiatives and cooperating like this, older adults can tip the balance of opinions affecting the current discourse surrounding social activities in their favour.
The study results also showed that social participation, in the respondents views, led to positive changes in feeling needed and happy, as well as improvements in self-assessment of health. The respondents identified several other benefits of participation in the projects, including having new goals and seeing the world more positively, increased communication, and advancing their own skills and knowledge (see Figure 3). These results correspond to the extensive research pool on positive outcomes of participation in various social activities (e.g. Anderson et al., 2014; Barret, 1993; Gagliardi et al., 2020; Goulding, 2018; Kienko, 2021; Lum & Lightfoot, 2005).
Autonomy, or fulfilling needs through self-organisation, was a significant benefit reported by the participants. Many participants experienced improved health and emotional well-being through social participation. Social participation may stimulate more health-oriented behaviour and a better mental state, which is related to more regular physical activity, a decrease in the likelihood of having depression, the prevention of functional decline, and positive emotions (Gao et al., 2018; Kienko, 2021; Won & Kim, 2020). If properly geared around eudaimonic motivations and needs, social activities mitigate health problems and improve life satisfaction (Kelly et al., 2017; Miceli et al., 2019). Social participation also fulfilled other essential needs, such as competence and relatedness. This included positive changes in worldview, increased communication, and making new acquaintances (see Figure 3, Table 3). However, there is no clear explanation for why preserving culture is associated with a lower probability of a positive perception of life in this study. Overall, the current study's results support the eudemonic perspective, which suggests that engaging in social activities can help individuals fulfil their essential needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness.
The current study also emphasises the positive experiences of participants across various projects. Our analysis also showed that the participants who felt better emotionally and physically were more likely to have a positive perception of ageing. Certain projects may have a more significant impact on improving the positive perception of ageing compared to others (see Table 3). This is primarily because projects like the Young at Heart and Grandmother projects focus on the long-term integrated development of volunteering among older individuals through ecological volunteering, sports, intergenerational activities, psychological support, and cultural activities.
On the other hand, projects like the Age Fashion Day project are short-term or project-specific, where the benefits of participation may be somewhat limited. This indicates that engaging in meaningful activities significantly helps individuals reach their full potential (Robinson et al., 2012; Ryan et al., 2008). While ageing, people may have concerns regarding changes in their appearance, especially women, which happens partly due to social norms focused on youth (Åberg et al., 2020). Despite the length of participation in the Age Fashion Day project activities, such projects are of high importance in stimulating discussion on the perception of an ageing body and beauty standards and improving the self-confidence of older adults. Higher visibility of older adults and their participation in fashion and online platforms challenge negative stereotypes while providing alternative views on ageing and encouraging younger generations (Farinosi, 2023).
Most respondents in the three analysed projects were women. This is a typical situation in Russian social activities. One reason for this is that older women significantly outnumber men of the same age. Also, social participation in volunteering or clubs of interest may bring women more psychological benefits than men (Amagasa et al., 2017). Nevertheless, what would intrinsically motivate older men to engage more in social activities is a subject that merits investigation. A eudaimonic approach would help precisely because it focuses on these intrinsic motivations.
It is well- recognised that social participation can enhance well-being among older people (Pocock et al., 2023; Taghian et al., 2019). The current study, along with other studies conducted using a eudaimonic perspective in different cultural contexts, demonstrates this positive association with well-being (Chu & Koo, 2023; Shirahada & Wilson, 2022). The study results align with studies that see social connections, meaningful participation, life satisfaction and improvements in well-being as among the essential factors that contribute to the positive ageing conceptualisation (Pocock et al., 2023). The eudaimonic perspective on developing social activities should be instrumental in guiding strategic policy planning on ageing. This perspective is centred on fostering self-development, self-realisation, and adaptability through advancements in skills, expanding social networking, addressing societal advancement, and promoting social coherence. In this regard, it is essential to analyse the functioning of social institutions and the impact of the activities they promote on individual self-realisation (Waterman, 1993). Therefore, the present study calls for further research on the socioeconomic and cultural specifics of social activities in Russian localities and beyond, so that a truly holistic approach to organising them can be adopted, taking into account the diverse social positions, interests, and needs of older adults.
Information on the participants` backgrounds, including data on education and professional occupancies, could have provided fruitful information for the analysis. The population sample could also have been larger, as it ignored those less able to engage in social activities due to greater physical and emotional challenges (Handy & Cnaan, 2007). In this respect, a more favourable sociopolitical situation would have made gathering data with fewer missing variables easier. The project participants may have been more active or interested in social participation than older adults in general, which introduces a risk of selection bias. People already dedicated to self-improvement and self-development are generally more likely to engage in social activities (Ryan et al., 2008), while those who had not experienced any benefits from the activities would probably have already dropped out. As a result, the study may have overrepresented individuals who were motivated to participate in social activities, experienced fewer physical and emotional challenges, and benefited from these projects, leading to more positive outcomes in the study. Finally, as very few respondents had negative comments to make about the projects, this study does not address the potential negative impacts of social activities.
A eudaimonic perspective on social activities would benefit the active ageing and active longevity social policies that prioritise social participation for older adults. Participation in activities can effectively address internal motivations, including socialisation, self-development, self-realisation or doing something good for society or others. The majority of the respondents reported that participation in the studied projects led to positive changes in their perception of living after retirement. Hence, some respondents indicated the absence of such changes due to their active lives, positive mindsets, or remaining employed while participating in the studied projects. According to the respondents, social participation fostered a positive feeling of being needed and led to improved feelings of happiness and self-assessed health. Additionally, they experienced increased networking opportunities, the development of new life goals, and changes in their daily routines. The current study demonstrates that participation in social activities fulfils essential needs, such as developing competencies, fostering a sense of belonging, enabling interaction, pursuing personal interests, and enhancing autonomy. By highlighting those aspects of social activities which promote autonomy, competence, and relatedness among older adults, life after retirement and ageing is given a more positive image. Despite the positive side of this approach, the path to self-development and socialisation is not linear. The open questions and comment section, where the participants had room to express their feelings and thoughts, revealed information about health issues, losses of their loved ones, and changes in external conditions or issues with communication with other participants. The implication here is that social activities should be organised in a way that satisfies the interests and needs of older participants but should also be flexible with regular dialogue between all sides to respond to external and internal changes. Additionally, long-term engagement in social activities offers more chances to affect life perception positively.
The authors are grateful to Professor Teppo Kröger, University of Jyväskylä, for his insightful comments on this paper, to the reviewers for their valuable feedback, and to the Centre of Excellence in Research on Ageing and Care for funding [grant from the Research Council of Finland number 352735].
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